Peters, Michael A. FROM APOCALYPTIC TO THE NEW EARTH PHILOSOPHY: LANGUAGE GAMES OF TRANSFORMATION AND RENEWAL

FROM APOCALYPTIC TO THE NEW EARTH PHILOSOPHY: LANGUAGE GAMES OF TRANSFORMATION AND RENEWAL

Michael A. Peters

is a globally esteemed philosopher of education and public intellectual whose scholarship has profoundly shaped contemporary thought across philosophy, education, and political economy. He is currently Distinguished Visiting Professor at Tsinghua University (P.R. China), Emeritus Professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (USA), and Research Associate in the Philosophy Program at the University of Waikato (New Zealand). He served as Distinguished Professor of Education at Beijing Normal University from 2018 to 2024.

Abstract 

Ludwig Wittgenstein, one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century, made significant contributions to the fields of logic, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mind. However, exploring Wittgenstein's legacy as an apocalyptic thinker can open a new perspective on his work and its implications for understanding the limits of language, the nature of reality and human existence, and the development of a philosophy of the New Earth. This article demonstrates that by considering various aspects of Wittgenstein's philosophy, we can gain a new perspective on natural history and natural systems, appreciating the complexity, diversity, and context-dependent nature of the living world. Wittgenstein's work invites us to reflect on the richness of the natural world without seeking to reduce it to simple explanations or universal laws, but rather to appreciate "life" in the forms in which it presents itself to us.

Keywords: L. Wittgenstein, apocalyptic philosophy, philosophy of the New Earth, apocalyptic language game, environmental, sustainable development

 

Wittgenstein and Apocalypse

Ludwig Wittgenstein, one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century, is not commonly associated with apocalyptic thought in the conventional sense. His primary contributions lie in the fields of logic, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mind. However, exploring Wittgenstein as an apocalyptic thinker can offer a unique perspective on his work and its implications for understanding the limits of language, the nature of reality, and the human condition.

Wittgenstein’s [15] philosophy, particularly as expressed in his later work, Philosophical Investigations, suggests a form of “conceptual apocalypse”. This is not an apocalypse in the traditional sense of a cataclysmic end of the world but rather an unveiling or revealing of the limitations of language and the problems arising from misunderstanding its role in human life. Wittgenstein argued that many philosophical problems arise from a misuse of language, suggesting that clarity in understanding language's function could dissolve such problems. This “apocalyptic” revelation, in a metaphorical sense, aims to liberate us from the confusion and bewilderment that philosophical and existential questions often provoke.

Wittgenstein read Oswald Spengler’s Decline of the West (1918) and was impressed with the conception that cultures pass through invariant organic stages that experience a life-cycle ending in decline and eventual “death”. Spengler held that when cultures collapse they turn into “civilizations” and as Wittgenstein remarks about modern civilization “spirit hangs over the ashes.” This “apocalyptical” reading of the Investigations has been interpreted as a “philosophy of culture” [3, 4], that in a sense mirrors the collapse of the Habsburgs and the spirit of the times [6, see especially the essay by von Wright].

In his earlier work, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus,[1] Wittgenstein [14] presented a picture of language that attempts to delineate the limits of what can be said meaningfully. The famous proposition 7 states, "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent," highlighting a boundary beyond which language loses its grip on reality. This boundary can be seen as a form of apocalyptic demarcation, beyond which lies the unsayable, the mystical, or the aspects of reality that cannot be captured through language but are nonetheless crucial to human life. It might be argued that the Tractatus also issues forth a form of “conceptual apocalypse” that leds directly to the theme of the “end of philosophy”. Wittgenstein gives us a clue in the Preface where he writes: “The book deals with the problems of philosophy and shows, as I believe, that the method of formulating these problems rests on the misunderstanding of the logic of our language.” Famously, he puts forward his view that his book draws a limit to the expression of thoughts and remarks that in order to draw such a limit we also need to be able “to think what cannot be thought”. And he comes to the following conclusion: “The limit can, therefore, only be drawn in language and what lies on the other side of the limit will be simply nonsense.” On the basis of his conclusions the truth of which he describes as “unassailable and definitive” he believes that he has solved all the problems of philosophy and he remarks how little has been done when these problems are solved. Wittgenstein elegant treatise on the structure of logic of language and the world, his implicit critique of logical atomism, spells the end of analytic philosophy.

Wittgenstein’s early “conceptual apocalypse” consists in a series of elucidatory remarks that must be thrown away as soon as someone understands them. The Tractatus is an attempt to say something that cannot be said but only shown in the logical structure of propositions.

Furthermore, Wittgenstein’s personal reflections and remarks, some of which are recorded in his notebooks and correspondence, occasionally touch on religious and ethical themes that could be interpreted in an apocalyptic light. He had a profound interest in the ethical and spiritual dimensions of life, emphasizing the importance of how one lives and the attitude one takes toward life and death. His thoughts on ethics, the meaning of life, and the possibility of experiencing the world with a sense of awe and wonder might be seen as touching on the transformative, "apocalyptic" moments in individual lives. Wittgenstein’s famous remark “The truly apocalyptic view of the world is that things do not repeat themselves”, perhaps a philosophical counterpoint to Spengler, serves to challenge us that “the age of science and technology is the beginning of the end for humanity”, a prescient thought given the comments by a number of scientists about the coming of General AI.

To consider Wittgenstein an apocalyptic thinker, one must adopt a broad and metaphorical understanding of apocalypse—not as a prediction of the end times but as a profound transformation in understanding, a radical shift that challenges our fundamental assumptions and ways of seeing the world. Through this lens, Wittgenstein’s philosophical project can be seen as an attempt to bring about a conceptual apocalypse, aiming to change not the world but the way we see and engage with it.

A number of scholars have detected Wittgenstein’s conception of apocalyptic philosophy in the Investigations [2, 6, 13] seeing it as “fundamental” or as a means to destabilize routine habits of mind. Cavell [3, p. 253], as previously noted, suggests that Wittgenstein redefined Spengler’s vision of the destiny toward exhausted forms. Philosophy takes on the task of returning us to the “everyday’ and the “ordinary”. I have sympathy with these approaches that signal a hermeneutics of Wittgenstein in terms of the “spirit of the times”, to use Wittgenstein’s own expression and yet I want to argue a different track that employs his conception of “language games” as both the motif of a post-apocalyptic philosophy that can do the work of deconstruction in order to under the West’s obsession with apocalypse as a deep cultural repertoire and habit of thought. Apocalyptic language-games reveal less about the objective state of the world and more about particular ways of seeing and being in the world often implied in cultural rationalities [8].

The apocalyptic language-game

The concept of the "apocalyptic language-game" using a Wittgensteinian analysis intersects the philosophy of language with eschatological themes – themes that were never far from Wittgenstein’s thoughts including metaphysics, his relation to God, the purpose of religious language, and the nature of self. Wittgenstein introduced the concept of language-games in his later work, particularly in Philosophical Investigations. To understand how Wittgenstein's ideas might apply to the notion of an "apocalyptic Language-game," it's essential to understand Wittgenstein's philosophy of language and the concept of language-games, and how these ideas can be applied to apocalyptic discourse.

Wittgenstein's philosophy of language centers around the idea that the meaning of words is not inherent but derives from their use in the language. He argued against the notion of a private language, suggesting instead that language is a social activity, its meanings shaped and reshaped through our interactions and activities. The concept of language-games is central to Wittgenstein's later philosophy. A language-game refers to the context within which language is used, emphasizing the multifaceted ways in which words can acquire meaning. These games are not literal games but rather various forms of linguistic interaction that include all the uses of language: asking questions, giving orders, telling stories, and so forth. Each game has its own rules and logic, which are not necessarily explicit but are understood by those who participate in the game.

Applying Wittgenstein's framework to the concept of an "apocalyptic language-game" involves examining how apocalyptic narratives and languages function within specific contexts. This analysis can reveal the rules and uses of apocalyptic language, showing how such narratives construct meaning, influence beliefs, and guide actions within various communities. In the apocalyptic language-game, words and symbols are related to “end times”, judgment, salvation, and destruction that gain their meaning from their use in religious texts, sermons, and discussions. The meaning of terms like "apocalypse," "Armageddon," or "rapture" is shaped by their context within eschatological narratives that links apocalyptic early Jewish thought and especially the genre of the book of Daniel to Christian belief and discourse that support the discursive infrastructure of Relevation in the New Testament.

From a “language-game” perspective we can examine the apocalyptic literature in early Jewish thought, exemplified by the Book of Daniel, in terms of the significant characteristics that influenced Christian beliefs and the discourse found in the Book of Revelation in the New Testament. In this regards we might talk of apocalyptic language-games in the plural for the notion of apocalypse is not limited to the Judeo-Christian context, but stretches back to Egyptian, Persian and Sumerian texts and myths. It is also applied in other religious cultures such as Islam, Hinduism, and various indigenous cultures and “civilizations” like the Mayan that introduced the long calendar and entertained the end of an epoch. Zoroastrianism founded more than 3,000 years ago as one of the oldest monotheistic religions, in its core beliefs emphasizes a never-ending battle between good (Ahura Mazda) and evil (Ahriman). The Mayan civilization existed from antiquity in the period before 2000 BC developed a network of city-states linked by trade and a calendrical system based on lunar and solar cycles that combined a non-repeating Long Count cycle of 394 years with the 260 and 365 day cycles and the 52-year calendar given an apocalyptic reading by New Age sources, later disputed by anthropologists. Classical scholars have suggested that China has in own eschatological texts such as The Divine Incantations Scripture. This would suggest that the apocalyptic psyche develops differently in different cultures and the notion of language-games, while sharing some basic features, also entertains cultural differences.

The language-game presents a dualistic eschatological world view that emphasizes a stark contrast between good and evil, light and darkness, and the present age versus the age to come. This dualism is strongly emphasized Christian eschatology, especially in Revelation, with its vivid depictions of the battle between God and Satan, Heaven and Hell. The Book of Daniel, with its prophecies about the end times and the coming of the Son of Man, sets a precedent for the eschatological hope found in Christian discourse and Revelation builds on this expectation with its own prophecies about the second coming of Christ and the final judgment. Daniel is known for its symbolic dreams and visions, such as the statue made of different metals and the beasts representing various empires. Similarly, Revelation is rich in symbolic imagery, like the dragon, the beast, and the lamb, which are used to convey messages about divine judgment and salvation. It is a characteristic of this language-game to be written pseudonymously and anonymously. Some early Jewish apocalyptic texts were written pseudonymously, attributed to figures from the distant past to give them authority. While Revelation is traditionally attributed to John the Apostle, although there is a scholarly debate about its authorship, reflecting a similar use of authority in its narrative. The issue of narrative authority is a strong feature that is intended to enhance the perceived importance of the narrative by (falsely) attributing it to a religious figure, who in turn is often described as making God’s message manifest.

The historical context of oppression and persecution under foreign empires in the Book of Daniel is significant for understanding its apocalyptic themes. This sense of living under persecution carried over into early Christian experiences and is reflected in the urgency and comfort offered by the apocalyptic promises in Revelation.  The Book of Daniel introduces the idea of a cosmic battle between angelic and demonic forces, which has a direct impact on earthly events. Revelation expands this theme, depicting a cosmic battle culminating in divine intervention and the establishment of a new heaven and a new earth. Daniel introduces the idea of the resurrection of the dead, some to everlasting life and others to shame and everlasting contempt. This concept is central to Christian eschatology and is a key theme in Revelation, where the dead are judged according to their deeds. Daniel speaks of the everlasting dominion of God and the establishment of a kingdom that will never be destroyed. Revelation also promises the coming of God's kingdom, where God will dwell with humanity in a new Jerusalem.

The discourse infrastructure of Revelation in the New Testament is deeply rooted in the themes and motifs found in early Jewish apocalyptic literature like the Book of Daniel. These elements form a continuity of thought that has significantly shaped Christian eschatological belief and discourse.

The apocalyptic language-game serves functions such as warning, prophesying, comforting, and guiding behavior. It shapes how communities understand their world, their place in it, and their actions toward future events prophesied or implied by religious texts. This language-game follows its own set of rules and logic, often grounded in religious doctrine or interpretations of sacred texts. Participants in the game accept these rules, which guide their understanding and discussions of apocalyptic themes. The apocalyptic language-game also plays a role in community formation and identity. It can demarcate in-groups and out-groups, uniting people around shared beliefs about the end times and distinguishing them from those who do not share these beliefs. Using a Wittgensteinian analysis to explore the apocalyptic language-game uncovers the intricate ways in which apocalyptic narratives function within specific contexts, shaping beliefs, behaviors, and community identities. This approach emphasizes the importance of context, use, and the rules governing language, offering a nuanced understanding of how apocalyptic language constructs meaning and influences the human experience [10].

From apocalyptic thinking to New Earth philosophy

The exploration of the transition from apocalyptic thinking to New Earth philosophy engages deeply with the linguistic and conceptual frameworks that shape human understanding and interaction with the world [9]. This transition, as this paper argues, is far from a straightforward shift in thought; rather, it is a multifaceted reconfiguration of language, meaning, and practice, deeply rooted in the philosophical insights of Ludwig Wittgenstein, particularly his later work on language-games, forms of life, and the pragmatics of language use. This can be seen as a stretch to a speculative form of thinking based on “making connections” but also to the living connections that anchor natural cultural histories in living systems. 

Apocalyptic thinking, with its narratives of impending disaster—whether derived from religious prophecy, cultural pessimism, or environmental crisis—employs a distinct language-game [10] that articulates a world view in which cataclysmic events are not only imminent but are also seen as inevitable, casting a shadow of despair and resignation over humanity. Such narratives, steeped in fear and fatalism, profoundly influence the collective and individual psyche, shaping how people interpret their existence and future. Wittgenstein's philosophy offers a critical lens through which to examine these narratives, suggesting that they are less about empirical truths waiting to be validated and more about the expression of specific life forms and practices. According to Wittgenstein, to understand the meaning of any statement, one must look at its use in the language-game it is part of. This is Wittgenstein’s much-cited concept of “meaning as use”.

The shift towards a New Earth philosophy is envisioned not simply as an alternative narrative but as a transformative reorientation of our conceptual and existential frameworks. This philosophy advocates for a language-game that emphasizes renewal, interconnectedness, and sustainable coexistence with the natural world. It seeks to replace the fatalistic outlook of apocalyptic thinking with a vision of possibility and hope, where humanity recognizes its role not as dominator or victim of an inevitable demise but as an active participant in the creation of a more harmonious and sustainable future. The New Earth philosophy, thus, is not merely an intellectual paradigm shift but a profound change in the way humans relate to each other and to the planet.

This transition requires what Wittgenstein might liken to a "gestalt switch" in perception—a fundamental change in the way we see and interpret the world around us. It demands a critical examination of the language-games we play and the forms of life they represent, urging us to adopt new practices that foster resilience, adaptability, and mutual care. In this context, language becomes a tool for reimagining our world, enabling us to articulate and embody alternatives to the destructive narratives that have long dominated human thought.

The move towards a New Earth philosophy also reflects a pragmatic recognition of the limitations of apocalyptic thinking. While such narratives may mobilize attention and action in the short term, they often lead to despair and inaction in the face of perceived inevitability. By contrast, a New Earth perspective encourages proactive engagement with the challenges of our time, promoting solutions that are sustainable, equitable, and rooted in a deep sense of interconnectedness among all forms of life.

The transition from apocalyptic language-games to a New Earth philosophy represents a profound shift in human conceptualization and existence. It is a journey from narratives of doom to narratives of hope, from a worldview centered on fear and fatalism to one that embraces possibility, regeneration, and interconnectedness. This paper, drawing on Wittgenstein's insights into the nature of language and meaning, argues that such a transition is not only desirable but necessary for the survival and flourishing of humanity and the planet. By reimagining our language-games and the forms of life they constitute, we can begin to forge a path towards a more sustainable and harmonious existence on this New Earth.

A reading of Wittgensteinian New Earth philosophy

The idea of positioning Ludwig Wittgenstein as a precursor to New Earth philosophy involves a creative and somewhat speculative interpretation of his philosophical contributions. New Earth philosophy, while not a widely recognized or established term in academic philosophy, could be understood as a philosophy that emphasizes a radical transformation in human consciousness and societal structures, aiming towards a more harmonious and sustainable relationship with the Earth and each other. This concept may draw upon ecological, spiritual, and ethical dimensions, proposing a shift from exploitation and alienation to stewardship and interconnectedness.

Wittgenstein's work does not directly address ecological or Earth-centric concerns as they are understood in contemporary environmental philosophy. Several aspects of his philosophy could be interpreted as laying conceptual groundwork that resonates with the aims of New Earth Philosophy. His emphasis on the limits of language and the importance of that which cannot be said ("Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent”) invites a humility in our approach to understanding the world. This humility can be essential in New Earth philosophy, which often calls for a recognition of the limits of human knowledge and the importance of perspectives that transcend rational-analytical thinking, including intuitive and indigenous ways of knowing.

Wittgenstein saw philosophy not just as a theoretical enterprise but as a practice that has implications for how we live our lives. His idea that philosophy should aim to "show the fly the way out of the fly-bottle" suggests a transformative purpose, freeing us from conceptual confusion. This notion aligns with New Earth philosophy’s emphasis on transformational practices that aim to shift consciousness and ways of living on a fundamental level. Although his work is often seen as primarily concerned with language, logic, and the philosophy of mind, he also engaged deeply with ethical and existential questions. His work suggests that how one lives—with authenticity, ethical integrity, and an appreciation of life's depth—is of utmost importance. This resonates with New Earth philosophy's call for a deep ethical engagement with the world and a commitment to living in ways that reflect an understanding of interconnectedness and responsibility.

Wittgenstein’s later philosophy, particularly in Philosophical Investigations, emphasizes the idea of seeing connections and aspects of our life clearly. This clarity of vision can be interpreted as a precursor to the kind of paradigm shift advocated by New Earth philosophy, where seeing the world anew involves recognizing our deep interdependence with all life forms and the Earth itself. Although Wittgenstein was cautious about what philosophy could meaningfully say, he was also open to the significance of the mystical and what lies beyond the limits of language. His respect for the mystical or that which we cannot speak about directly can be seen as parallel to New Earth philosophy’s interest in transcending conventional modes of understanding to embrace a more holistic and interconnected view of reality.

To position Wittgenstein as a precursor of New Earth philosophy, one must engage in an interpretive and extrapolative reading of his work, seeing beyond his immediate concerns to the broader implications of his philosophical insights. While he did not explicitly address themes now associated with New Earth philosophy, his profound engagement with the limits of language, the nature of understanding, and the ethical dimensions of life provides a rich conceptual backdrop against which the aspirations of New Earth philosophy can be critically examined and developed. His theoretical apparatus of contextual non-foundational thinking suggests the concept of networks.

Ludwig Wittgenstein's later work, indeed pivot away from foundationalist approaches to language and meaning, embracing instead a contextual, use-based analysis of language. This shift is most prominently detailed in his Philosophical Investigations, where he introduces the concept of language games and the idea of meaning as use. These notions suggest a move towards understanding language, thought, and meaning as inherently contextual and interwoven within forms of life, rather than grounded in any fixed, universal foundations. His philosophical perspective can be seen as aligning with, or at least suggestive of, the concept of networks. His concept of language games emphasizes that the meaning of a word or sentence is determined by its function within specific human activities. This can be likened to the idea of networks, where nodes (which could represent words, concepts, or individuals) have significance and function determined by their connections and relations to other nodes within the network. Language games, in this sense, can be seen as networks of meaning-making practices, where the connections and relations between uses of language define the landscape of meaning.

Wittgenstein's notion of "forms of life" refers to the broad cultural, historical, and practical contexts within which language games are played. This concept suggests a network of practices, traditions, and ways of living that give language its sense. Just as networks are defined by the pattern of their connections and the context of those connections, forms of life provide the contextual "network" within which language and meaning operate. In a Wittgensteinian framework, understanding language and meaning involves recognizing the complex, non-linear ways in which words and practices are interconnected. This mirrors network theory's emphasis on non-linear connections among nodes, where changing one part of the network can have unpredictable effects on the whole. Wittgenstein's approach suggests a similar view of language and practices as interconnected systems where meanings are not isolated but deeply interdependent.

Wittgenstein's critique of foundationalism and his emphasis on the contextual nature of meaning argue against reductionist approaches that seek to ground language and thought in some fundamental essence or building blocks. This is analogous to network thinking, which resists reductionist explanations and instead focuses on the emergent properties of systems—the idea that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, and that understanding comes from seeing how things work together in context. Wittgenstein's perspective implies that language, meaning, and forms of life are dynamic and evolving, rather than static and predetermined. This is consistent with the concept of networks, which are understood to be adaptable, evolving structures that change over time as connections are formed, reformed, or dissolved. While Wittgenstein did not explicitly use network terminology, his theoretical apparatus of contextual, non-foundational thinking offers a philosophical backdrop that resonates with the concept of networks. This analogy enriches our understanding of Wittgenstein's work and provides a fruitful way to explore the complexity of language, meaning, and human practices in a interconnected, dynamic world.

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The transition to a New Earth philosophy: Science and mathematics

In exploring the transition from apocalyptic thinking to a philosophy centered around a "New Earth" perspective, this paper explores the intricate fabric of human conceptualization and its manifestations in the spirit of Wittgenstein's later work. The paper approaches this transition not as a linear progression of thought but as a complex interplay of language, forms of life, and the pragmatic contexts in which they emerge.

Apocalyptic narratives, rooted in religious, cultural, or environmental frameworks, exhibit a particular language-game wherein imminent cataclysms loom large, casting shadows of fear and fatalism upon the human psyche. Wittgenstein's insight urges us to scrutinize these linguistic formations not as propositions awaiting empirical validation but as expressions of certain forms of life embedded within their respective language-games. Thus, apocalyptic thinking, rather than a reflection of objective reality, emerges as a reflection of particular ways of seeing, understanding, and responding to the world.

The transition towards a New Earth philosophy, then, necessitates a shift in language-games, a reorientation of conceptual frameworks towards new forms of life and praxes. This transition is not merely an intellectual exercise but a profound reconfiguration of our existential orientations, akin to a gestalt switch in perception. It entails a movement from narratives of impending doom towards narratives of possibility, regeneration, and interconnectedness.

Within this transformative process lies the emergence of New Earth physics – a domain of inquiry that departs from mechanistic and reductionist paradigms towards holistic and ecological frameworks. Drawing inspiration from systems theory, complexity science, and ecological thinking, New Earth physics seeks to elucidate the interconnected dynamics of living systems, emphasizing feedback loops, emergence, and self-organization. In contrast to traditional physics, which often treats the world as a collection of isolated objects governed by deterministic laws, New Earth physics embraces the inherent complexity and interconnectedness of natural phenomena, inviting us to perceive the universe as a web of interdependent relationships.

Similarly, one might argue that Wittgestein’s mathematics is sympathetic to a New Earth or ecological orientation thus described transcends the confines of Cartesian dualism and Euclidean geometry, venturing into realms of fractals, networks, and non-linear dynamics. Here, mathematical structures reflect the intricate patterns and processes found in nature, from the branching of trees to the flocking of birds. Set against the backdrop of ecological crises and the limitations of conventional mathematics to capture the complexity of living systems, “New Earth” mathematics, to use a speculative term, offers novel tools and insights for understanding and navigating the emergent properties of interconnected ecosystems. Wittgenstein's mathematics might be described as “ecological” in the sense there are no foundations, only networks of practice. Wittgenstein's philosophy of mathematics indeed can be seen as “ecological” in the sense that he rejected the idea that mathematics is founded upon some sort of immutable logical structure. Instead, he saw mathematics as a set of activities — a network of practices, rules, and processes that are used in various ways depending on the context and the problems that need to be solved.

Wittgenstein argued that doing mathematics is a matter of following rules. The meaning of mathematical statements is not based on reference to abstract objects or intrinsic truth-values but on the rules and conventions established within the mathematical community. He extended his concept of language-games to mathematics. Just as language-games are diverse activities that involve language, mathematical practices can be thought of as 'math-games' with their own specific rules and purposes. Wittgenstein challenged the idea that mathematics has a foundational basis in logic or set theory. He suggested that the search for absolute foundations is misguided because mathematical practices are justified by their usefulness and the stability of the results they produce, not by an underlying logical framework [16].

In his later philosophy, Wittgenstein emphasized that mathematics is something that people do. It is not about discovering pre-existing mathematical truths but about creating and applying reliable techniques for counting, measuring, proving, and so forth. For Wittgenstein, a proof in mathematics does not reveal a pre-existing truth but creates a new proposition's validity within the language-game of mathematics. Proofs are persuasive activities that are accepted or rejected based on the norms and criteria established by the mathematical community. The meaning and truth of mathematical propositions are not universal but are understood within specific contexts. Just as with ecological systems, which are networks of interrelated components shaped by their environment, mathematical systems are networks of practices shaped by their application and use. Just as an ecological perspective recognizes a multitude of interdependent life forms and processes, Wittgenstein recognized a plurality of mathematical practices and techniques that cannot be reduced to a single essence or justified by an external standard.

Wittgenstein's ecological approach to mathematics, with its emphasis on practice, use, and the human activities that constitute mathematical life, provides a stark contrast to more traditional, foundational views of mathematics. He shifts the focus from mathematics as an abstract, otherworldly realm to mathematics as a human invention, deeply embedded in our forms of life, and subject to change and variation just like any other human practice.

Wittgenstein's approach to mathematics resonates with his broader philosophical perspective that emphasizes the practical and use-oriented nature of language and systems of thought. This follows from his early conception of mathematics developed in the Tractatus where “mathematical propositions” are not real propositions and that ‘mathematic truth’ is essentially non-referential and purely syntactical in nature. His viewpoint can indeed be characterized as 'ecological' in the sense that he does not search for ultimate foundations but rather looks at the interconnections and functions of practices within the 'lifeworld'. When applying this to the realm of physics, it's worth noting that Wittgenstein did not directly contribute to the field of physics. However, if we extend his philosophical approach to the sciences, including physics, we might suggest that an ecological interpretation in a Wittgensteinian sense would focus on the practices, applications, and the context of physical theories rather than seeking an abstract foundational framework that stands independent of human activity.

In the context of physics, this would mean understanding scientific concepts and theories as tools that have evolved to handle specific problems and tasks. These tools are not necessarily grounded in a fundamental reality but are part of a web of scientific practices that have proven effective for explaining and manipulating our environment. From this viewpoint, physical laws and theories are not immutable truths but are part of a dynamic network of scientific activities that include experimentation, prediction, and technological application.

Wittgenstein might argue that the quest for a final, absolute foundation in physics is akin to the quest for the meaning of words outside of their context of use. Just as the meaning of words is determined by their use in the language-game, the validity and meaning of scientific theories might be determined by their use in the 'game' of scientific practice. This approach could lead to an 'ecological' view of scientific knowledge as something that is not purely objective or detached from human concerns but as something that is deeply interwoven with human practices, purposes, and the environment in which we live. It suggests a more holistic view of knowledge and reality, where the boundaries between observer, observed, and the context of observation are not strictly defined but are part of a continuous interplay.

Crucially, the transition to New Earth interpretation of physics and mathematics is not merely a technical endeavor but a philosophical and ethical one. It entails a reevaluation of our ontological assumptions, epistemological frameworks, and ethical commitments in light of ecological interconnectedness and interdependence. In this sense, a New Earth interpretation of physics and mathematics are not just branches of scientific inquiry but pathways towards a deeper understanding of our place within the web of life.

Moreover, the transition to a New Earth philosophy involves a shift in praxis, a reorientation of human activity towards principles of sustainability, regeneration, and co-creation. Informed by insights from physics and mathematics, this praxis encompasses diverse forms of engagement, from sustainable agriculture and renewable energy to community-based initiatives and regenerative design. At its core lies a recognition of the inherent interconnectedness of all beings and the imperative of collective action in fostering planetary flourishing.

The transition from apocalyptic thinking to a New Earth philosophy unfolds as a multifaceted journey of linguistic, conceptual, and existential transformation. Through the lens of Wittgenstein's later philosophy, we come to appreciate this transition not as a departure from one fixed reality to another but as a continuous unfolding of human understanding within the flux of lived experience. Physics and mathematics, situated within this broader transition, offer novel avenues for inquiry and action, inviting us to reimagine our relationship with the natural world and cultivate new ways of being in harmony with the Earth.

New Earth philosophy as a language-game of transformation and renewal

Wittgenstein's perspective on language and its use in "language-games" provides a useful speculative framework for constructing what we might call "New Earth” philosophy [9]. This hypothetical philosophy, if oriented around ecological principles and the understanding of Earth's systems, would be rooted in the interconnectedness and interdependence of all its parts, much like Wittgenstein viewed language. Language in this game would be used to describe, explain, and interact with the Earth's ecosystems. Terms and concepts would gain meaning from their use in ecological contexts, such as discussions about climate change, conservation efforts, and sustainability practices. Echoing Wittgenstein's stance against fixed foundations in mathematics, the New Earth philosophy would not seek immutable truths but would instead focus on the dynamic, evolving understanding of ecological systems that are forever dynamic organic interacting unities specific to different landmasses and ocean systems. It would be centered on practices that reflect the changing nature of our environment and our knowledge about it. There is some precedent for an ecological reading of the later Wittgenstein although they are innovative and hardly mainstream. In “Language as environment: An ecological approach to Wittgenstein’s form of life” Pierluigi Biancini [1] argues that Lebensform taking clues from the ecological literature and practical holism might be read as a set of insights into the ecology of the linguistic environment that destroys the dualism of language-world. Tarkov and Djia [12] argue that “Wittgenstein’s ethical individualism as a foundation for environmental ethics” and Rupert Reed [11] argues that Wittgenstein is “above all a philosopher of freedom” where freedom is construed as co-freedom and co-liberation -- “an authentic politics/ethics of ecology and enlightenment”.

Just as Wittgenstein saw mathematics as a network of interrelated practices, New Earth philosophy would view ecological action and understanding as a network of practices. These would include scientific research, environmental activism, policy-making, education, and everyday ecological living. Wittgenstein argued that language is interwoven with the "form of life" it arises from. In New Earth philosophy, this concept would relate to the way humans interact with the natural world, emphasizing that our language and actions must align with the life-supporting systems of the planet. “Rules” in the New Earth philosophy language-game would not be absolute but would be derived from the collective agreement and practices within ecological discourse. They would be adaptable based on the feedback from the environment and scientific insights.

The purpose of the New Earth philosophy language-game would be to foster a better relationship between humans and the natural world, to encourage sustainable practices, and to create a shared understanding of ecological issues. Participants in this language-game would be individuals and groups committed to ecological understanding and sustainability. The game would contribute to forming a community identity centered around environmental stewardship and respect for the Earth. By framing New Earth philosophy as a language-game, we adopt Wittgenstein's view that understanding and meaning are not fixed but are the products of our interactions and practices. It emphasizes the role of language in shaping our interactions with the Earth and with each other regarding ecological matters. This approach allows for flexibility, responsiveness, and a deep integration of ecological understanding into the fabric of human life and culture.

One of the major concepts is the terminology of “stewardship”. The development of terms that promote conservation, sustainability, and respect for natural resources, replacing exploitative language that views the Earth as merely a source of raw materials. New Earth philosophy would prioritize harmonious coexistence with nature, promoting actions that sustain biodiversity and ecological balance. These can be considered to be ethical frameworks of coexistence within forms of life that have natural histories. In these frameworks there is an ethical imperative for individuals and societies to take responsibility for the ecological consequences of their actions and the inherent bias is synonymous with sustainability as a concept and a set of practices.

Practices encouraged by this philosophy would be those that maintain or improve the Earth's ability to sustain life, such as renewable energy, regenerative agriculture, and sustainable waste management.

On this view all innivations to be aigned with ecology. Technological and industrial innovations would be evaluated based on their ecological impact, fostering advancements that are in harmony with the environment. Education systems would integrate ecological knowledge deeply into curricula, teaching individuals from a young age about the complex workings of ecosystems. Cultural norms and values would shift to celebrate sustainable living, ecological awareness, and a deep respect for the natural world. Political decisions and policies would be informed by ecological science, ensuring that governance supports the planet's ecological health. Recognizing the global nature of ecological issues, this philosophy would advocate for international cooperation in addressing environmental challenges.

Questions of intersubjectivity and collective identity ensure that people are understood as Earth inhabitants. Individuals would be taught how to identify as part of the Earth's biosphere, understanding that human health and well-being are intrinsically linked to the health of the planet. Communities would be engaged in local and global efforts to protect and restore natural environments, fostering a sense of collective ecological stewardship. New Earth philosophy would advocate for a paradigm shift in the human relationship with the Earth, where every linguistic expression and action is measured against its compatibility with the Earth's life-supporting systems. It would call for a cultural and behavioral transformation that recognizes the intrinsic value of the natural world and our inextricable place within it.

While not known for extensive work on natural history or natural systems in the traditional scientific sense, Wittgenstein provided philosophical insights that can be applied to these fields. His later work, particularly in Philosophical Investigations, suggests a way of looking at knowledge, language, and understanding that can be metaphorically extended to natural history and natural systems through his notion of “family resemblances” where members of a family share a set of overlapping features but do not all share the same single characteristic. Also as argued previously language-games are the various activities that involve language and are shaped by the specific life-forms and practices of those who use it. This could be analogized to natural systems, wherein different ecological niches could be seen as different "language-games" with their own rules and forms of "communication" or interaction between species and their environment. The concept of "forms of life" in this context could relate to the various life forms and their unique ways of interacting with their environment, suggesting a diversity of "languages" or methods of survival and reproduction.

Wittgenstein cautioned against the drive for total explanation or complete understanding, suggesting that at some point, explanation reaches a limit and what remains is simply "what we do." In studying natural systems, this resonates with the idea that not every aspect of a complex ecosystem can be fully explained or predicted. There comes a point where the complexity is such that the system must be engaged with or observed as it is, with recognition of the inherent unpredictability and emergent properties.

Wittgenstein's rejection of the idea that there is a single essence or definitive characteristic that defines a concept could be extended to the understanding of natural systems. Instead of looking for a single defining feature of an ecosystem or species, it might be more useful to recognize the variety of characteristics and functions that contribute to the whole.

By considering these aspects of Wittgenstein's philosophy, we can gain a philosophical lens through which to view natural history and natural systems, appreciating the complexity, diversity, and context-dependent nature of the living world. Wittgenstein's work invites us to consider the richness of the natural world without necessarily seeking to reduce it to simple explanations or universal laws, but rather to appreciate the 'life' in its forms as they present themselves to us.

New Earth philosophy, inspired by Wittgenstein's language-game philosophy, would fundamentally revolve around the premise that human language and actions are profoundly interconnected with the Earth's ecosystems. It posits that our discourse and behaviors should not only reflect but also support the viability of the planet's life-supporting systems. This philosophy might be considered to be manifest in various dimensions of human activity such as ecological discourse where language functions as a reflective tool used to mirror the complexity and interconnectedness of ecological systems, influencing the way people think about the environment. Here the language-game will emphasize narratives and principles of interdependence. Stories, metaphors, and analogies in this philosophy would emphasize the symbiotic relationships between all living organisms and their habitats; and they become pointers to interconnection as an ecosophical principle that extends from the planet Earth to the Solar System, to galaxies and the universe itself.

References

1. Biancini, Pierluigi (2014) Language as Environment: An Ecological Approach to Wittgenstein’s Form of Life, The Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen.
2. Cahill, Kevin M. (2011) The Truly Apocalyptic View. In Cahill, Kevin H. The Fate of Wonder: Wittgenstein’s Critique of Metaphysics and Modernity.  Columbia University Press.
3. Cavell, Stanley (1988) Declining decline: Wittgenstein as a philosopher of culture. Inquiry (3) 253-264.
4. DeAngelis, William James (2007) Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Cultural Point of View: Philosophy in the Darkness of this Time. Ashgate
5. Hutto, Daniel D. (2006) Wittgenstein and the End of Philosophy: Neither Theory nor Therapy. Palgrave Macmillan.
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8. Peters, Michael A. (2022) Language-games philosophy: Language games as rationality and method, Educational Philosophy and Theory 54 (12):1929-1935.
9. Peters, Michael A. (2024) New Earth Philosophy: Being-Together in A Post-Apocalyptic Era, Review of Contemporary Philosophy 23, 2024 pp. 9–30, ISSN 1841-5261, eISSN 2471-089X                 
10. Peters, Michael A. & Meier, Thomas (2024) Civilizational Collapse and the Philosophy of Post-Apocalyptical Survival. Peter Lang.
11. Reed, Rupert (2023) Wittgenstein, co-freedom and the politics of ecology, The Kariros Club, https://www.kairos.london/event/wittgenstein-co-freedom-the-politics-of-ecology-with-rupert-read-2/
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14. Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1922) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Trans. D.F. Pears & B.F. McHuisnness. Digital Edition Project Gutenberg's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php?title=Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus_(English)
15. Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1953) Philosophical Investigations. Trans. G.E.M. Anscombe. Blackwell.
16. Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1956) Remarks of the Foundations of Mathematics. G.H. von Wright, Rush Rhees & G.E.M. Anscombe (eds.). Blackwell.
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Suggested citation note

Peters, M.A. (2026). From Apocalyptic to New Earth philosophy: Language-games of transformation and renewal. Ecopoiesis: Eco-Human Theory and Practice, 7(2). [open access internet journal]. – URL: http://ecopoiesis.ru (d/m/y)